1. She was a devout Catholic.
A. devoted
B. enthusiastic
C. pious
2. By the grace of God the ship came safely home through the storm.
A. elegance
B. prayer
C. favor
3. She did sincere penance for hurting her sister.
A. confession
B. voluntary self-punishment
C. self-criticism
4. The army soon suppressed the revolt.
A. depressed
B. crushed
C. Repressed
5. Since the contract was signed under illegal circumstances, we requested that it be annulled.
A. canceled
B. establish
C. changed
6. She had to sever all ties with her parents.
A. develop
B. establish
C. cut
7. Endless gossips on the newspapers widened the breach between the two rivals.
A. break
B. conflict
C. quarrel
8. Languages registers human thought in words.
A. records
B. expresses
C. shows
2 Text
2.1Cultural Background
Refonnalion: 宗教改革运动。欧洲16世纪由路德、加尔文和其他一些人鼓吹和发动的基督教新教改革运动。情况错综复 杂，但所有的改革具有若干个共同因素：复兴《圣经》，把“上帝的话”译成方言；提高教士的文化和道德标准；强调上帝有至高无上的权威；坚持信仰和《圣经》在基督教传播中占中心位量。
Middle Ages：中世纪。欧洲历史上从西罗马帝国崩溃到文艺复兴之间的一段时期(约500--约1500)。不过有时中世纪仅限于指西元1000年之后的四或五个世纪。中世纪虽然大体上被认为是古代和现代之间的一个时期，可是它既无明显的开始，也没有一 个明显的结束。
Holy Roman Empire：神圣罗马帝国。中世纪意大利在恢复罗马帝国时的国名。始自9世纪宗教封授法兰克国王查理曼大帝此称号。这一封号后封赠给各德意志王族，其中有霍亨斯陶芬家族、卢森堡家族、哈布斯堡家族。在查理曼大帝之后，12--13世纪霍亨斯陶芬王朝最盛；自腓特烈一世(红胡子)即位开始正式称“神圣罗马帝国”。腓特烈二世扩大帝国版图，扩及欧洲中部和意大利。自14世纪起，由于诸王权和城邦势力兴起，帝国权势日衰。1806年这一国名即告终止。
Martin Luther：马丁·路德(1483—1546)，德国宗教改革家。生于艾斯莱本。曾在奥古斯丁会修道院3年，在爱尔福特获得学位，1507年被授以神职。1501—1511年访问罗马，为赎罪券的销售而愤慨，从此开始其宗教改革家的生涯。1517年写出斥责赎罪券的《九十五条论纲》，并将其张贴在维藤贝格教堂的大门上。此举引起争论，后来他大胆抨击宗教制度，并公开焚烧谴责他的宗教训会，他的著作被下令销毁，他被召到沃尔姆斯议会，被国家下令禁
止活动。奥格斯堡帝国议会举行时，梅兰希顿代表他参加并提出《奥格斯堡信纲》，标志德国宗教改革运(1530)的顶点。卒于艾斯莱本，葬于维藤贝格。其翻译的《圣经》译本成为德国文学的一个里程碑。
Protestant：基督教新教徒。广义指16世纪宗教改革运动中抗议天主教的基督教徒。其共同信仰有：《圣经》的权威、因信称义、信徒皆为祭司。
Augsburg Confession：《奥格斯堡信纲》。路德、梅兰希顿 (Melanch—thon)等人为奥格斯堡议会(1530)撰写的信仰纲要。正式文本由梅兰希顿在1531年执笔写成，它是新教的最早声明，成 为一本权威文献。
John Calvin：加尔文(1509—1564)，法国基督教新教改革家。曾在巴黎学拉丁文，后在奥尔良习法律时对神学大感兴趣。他开始在布尔日和其他一些人口集中地区宣讲改革了的教义，但为免遭迫害不得不逃离法国。他在巴塞尔发表《基督教原理》(1536)，影响很大。在日内瓦经法雷尔(G．Farel)引导，参加了宗教改革运动。改革家们宣布一项《新教信仰纲要》，强调用严谨的道德代替自由放纵，当自由派背叛改革家出来反对时，加尔文和法雷尔均被
驱逐出城(1538)。加尔文迁居史特拉斯堡，从事《新约》的考证，并在那里结婚。1541年日内瓦人将他召还。他建立起神权政治，几乎掌管起全城的所有事务。1555年他的权威进一步增强，占有绝对优势。他是归正宗神学的始祖，给基督教新教留下两份遗产：一是把新教教义系统化，一是制订了新教教会的规章制度。他的评论涉及《旧约》和《新约》的三大部分，由后人编印于1617年出版。卒于日内瓦。
Calvinism：加尔文主义。该词至少有三种含义。①16世纪宗教改革家加尔文的神学神论；②17世纪加尔文派学者的主要教义理论，包括多尔德会议(1618—1619)所确认的“加尔文派五要点”；③广义指在加尔文影响下兴起的归正宗教义以及这种教义对其社会环境和文化环境所产生的冲击。加尔文主义素来强调：上帝有至尊的权威；《圣经为惟一的信仰依据；人得救为上帝预定。在神学家巴特的影响下，20世纪曾出现加尔文主义的复兴。
Huguenots：胡格诺派。法国加尔文派新教徒，因与天主教派(如吉斯家族)在政治上对立而引起法国宗教战争(1562--1598)。他们的领袖亨利于1589年继承王位，亨利改信天主教，后于1598年颁布南特敕令(Edict of Nantes)，给予胡格诺派以重大让步；但到1685年均被路易十四废除，结果他们遭受迫害，纷纷逃亡
国外。
John Knox：诺克斯(1513—1572)，苏格兰宗教改革家。生于洛锡安区哈丁顿附近。1544在威沙特(G．Wishart)影响下参加路德派的宗教改革。1546年威沙特受火刑后，诺克斯参加保卫圣安德鲁斯城堡的改革者行列，成为一名牧师。城堡被法军攻陷后被俘，直至1549年获释。此后成为爱德华六世宫内教堂牧师和《公祷书》第二卷的编辑顾问。1533年玛丽一世即位后逃往迪耶普，后转去日内瓦，在那里深受加尔文的影响。1555年回苏格兰布道。1559年再次回苏格兰，争取到一大批有力的拥护改革的群众，并于1560年创立苏格兰长老会。他自始至终参加制订《苏格兰信纲》、《教规第一卷》和《公共礼仪书》。卒于爱丁堡。
——文艺复兴时期的宗教改革思潮
文艺复兴时期，随着人文主义思潮向神学领域的渗透，终于酝酿出马丁· 路德与加尔文的宗教改革思潮。正是在这一思潮的激荡下，西欧的社会变革又向前迈进了一大步。
在中世纪的西欧，天主教鼓吹否定个人、否定人性的“神本”学说支配着人们的头脑。这一学说认为，人因“原罪”而难以自拔，只能凭借上帝的恩典才能获得拯救。上帝将人分为“选民”和“弃民”，前者将升入天堂享有“永生”，后者将被打入地狱而受到“永罚”。因此，人就必须虔诚地信仰上帝，听从上帝的代表教会的训导，履行神学伦理规范与教会法规，多积善功。与此相应，为了使人获得“救赎”，教会还建立起森严的教阶制与烦琐的“圣礼”制，同时还建立税收、司法制度，成为封建制度的巨大国际中心。在这样的历史条件下，要进行反封建斗争，就必须首先将矛头对准教会，而中古市民、平民、农民的反封建的斗争，也就总要以反罗马教廷的宗教“异端”形式出现。不过，由于时代的限制，这类“异端”都没有将个人的自由平等观念与进取精神引入神学领域，因此也就不能引发深层次的宗教信仰革命。
到了文艺复兴时期，随着社会经济、政治的变动与民族国家的兴起，新兴资产阶级强烈要求将“国际性”的、封建的教会转化为适应新的时代与阶级需要的民族的、“廉价”的教会。与此同时，人文主义启蒙思潮开始将人从传统的人身依附关系与神学枷锁中解放出来，促使人们从个人自由平等与开拓进取的角度来重新思考宗教信仰的价值与意义。所有这些，都有力地促进了宗教改革思潮的勃发。
马丁·路德（1483—1546）的德意志宗教改革开启了这一“信仰革命”的序幕。在当时，天主教会不仅在德意志大肆经济搜括，而且激烈维护德意志的封建割据。要实现国家的政治统一，为资本主义萌芽的发展开辟道路，就必须将矛头指向教会神权。在此情况下，深受人文主义思潮影响的爱国神学家路德立志要通过改革，建立本国的民族教会。1517年10月，路德发表了著名的《九十五条论纲》，尖锐地抨击教皇在德国销售赎罪券的行径，受到了市民与萨克森选侯的支持，激起了全民族的反教廷风潮。此后，他陆续发表了《致德意志的基督教贵族书》、《教会的巴比伦之囚》与《基督徒的自由》等重要文章，与罗马教廷与部分德国诸侯展开斗争。同时，他以希伯莱文和希腊文的版本为依据，将圣经翻译成了人们容易阅读与理解的德语。正是在对圣经内涵深层发掘的基础上，他构建起了宗教改革的学说。“因信称义”是路德宗教改革思想的核心。在他看来，只有信仰才与人的获救有关。而要获得拯救，就应当将对上帝的信仰建立在内心体悟的基础上。只有在内心虔诚信仰，才能与上帝直接沟通与交往，才能获得上帝的拯救。因此，外在的一切苦修与事功都达不到这个目的，一切烦琐的宗教仪式都应当废除。路德还提倡“圣经权威”论，宣称圣经是人们信仰的唯一神圣权威。每个信徒都应当自主地阅读与理解圣经。路德对教阶制度也予以抨击，提出“平信徒皆为祭司”的主张，认为人人在上帝与圣经面前都是平等的，都是领受了圣职的教士，也就根本不需要教士等级和教会作为人们与上帝交通的中介。教会应当是教徒的结社，教士是教徒选举出的公仆。路德还鼓吹俗权高于教权，强调国家权力是唯一合法的权力，每个国家都有权建立本国的民族教会。这些学说在社会广泛流播，路德也借此积极进行改革活动，最终建立起脱离罗马教廷的新教——“路德宗”。
与此同时，深受人文主义影响的法国神学家加尔文（1509—1564年）也开始鼓吹宗教改革。他年轻时曾在巴黎学习法律与神学，后因鼓吹宗教改革而受到教会迫害，逃到国外的巴塞尔潜心研究圣经与路德的学说。1536年，他发表了《基督教原理》，次年又撰写了《信仰指南》，提出了以“预定”论为核心的宗教改革学说。他认为，上帝是支配宇宙与人类的神圣主宰，人们的高低贵贱皆由上帝意志决定。上帝将世人分为“选民”和“弃民”，对前者给予恩典与庇护，对后者则抛弃与惩罚。而能成为“选民”既非是由人的意志决定，也就与个人的虔诚、善行和功罪无关。人们的命运在其未出生前就已为上帝所决定，因此人无法知道上帝的决定。不过，加尔文在此却为人的自主性与开创性留下了开阔的拓展空间。他声称，尽管上帝对其决定秘而不宣，但从上帝对人们的“呼召”中可以使人看到自己成为“选民”的迹象。对基督虔诚信仰并且参加教会，是成为“选民”的前提。以百折不挠的精神去争取事业上的成功，也是成为上帝之“选民”的表现。“选民”还须具有优良的道德品格，因为上帝的恩典可以有效阻止一个基督教徒的不良行为，并使能够节制、忍耐、简朴、诚实、讲信用与谦逊等等。高尚的基督徒，既应当在各自的职业中履行“天职”去尽力追求财富，但在使用财富时也应当加以节制，不可过分的奢侈、享乐与浪费。与此同时，加尔文还大力将“预定”论学说付诸于实践。从1541年开始，他以瑞士的日内瓦为中心，积极推行宗教改革活动，创立了加尔文教。他废除了传统的主教制度与烦琐的宗教仪式，代之以共和式的长老制，并以讲道和阅读《圣经》为日常宗教活动，并禁止信徒穿奇装异服，搞化装舞会，或生活放荡、赌博嫖妓等等。
在16世纪的西欧，尚未成熟的资产阶级需要借助神学信仰的更新来为自己世俗的经济和政治活动辩护，这就使得宗教改革思潮在外观形式、思想旨趣上与人文主义有着明显的差异。然而，这一思潮不仅以上帝、圣经的权威否定了罗马天主教会的神权及其教阶、礼仪制度存在的合理性，而且用宗教的理论构架和神学话语充分地表达了人文主义的自由、平等与开拓、进取的基本精神。所有这些主张，在西欧广大民众的宗教文化心理结构与神学信仰中形成了一次巨大的转换，最终催生出了适应新兴民族国家发展与新兴资产阶级反封建、反神权斗争需要的新教，由此而瓦解了中世纪天主教的封建大一统的神权统治，有力地推动了西欧社会从封建制度向资本主义的历史过渡。同时，这一宗教改革还为日后尼德兰与英国的资产阶级革命提供了宗教的思想旗帜与组织形式。正因为如此，恩格斯将路德和加尔文的宗教改革给予了高度的评价，将其誉之为新兴资产阶级反封建的“第一号资产阶级革命”。
The Renaissance brought to Europe a spirit and a way of thinking quite different from that in the Middle Ages. Another kind of break with medieval times came as reformers challenged the authority of the Church, whose political influence had weakened in the late Middle Ages. By the 14th century, reforms within the Church were being demanded in many countries of Europe.
Dissatisfaction with the Church was particularly strong in the German states of the Holy Roman Empire. Devout Germans denounced the practice of letting bishops buy their positions. Many Germans resented the worldliness, lack of piety, and greed of some members of the clergy.
The man who became the leader of the protest against the Church was a German monk, Martin Luther (1483-1546). Luther taught Biblical studies at the University of Wittenberg. He led a strict and pious life but was troubled by a feeling of sin and feared that he would never enter heaven. After an intense emotional struggle, Luther came to believe that men and women could be saved only by the grace of God, which would grant them faith in Christ. He believed that, while a true Christian would perform good works, these did not bring salvation. Christians, Luther thought, gained salvation through grace and faith.
Luther’s beliefs brought him into direct conflict with the Church over the question of how people could be pardoned for sins. The Church taught that most sins would be forgiven if a person confessed to a priest, regretted the action and asked for forgiveness, and did penance such as fasting or prayer. Still another way of being pardoned for sins, however, was to be given an indulgence(特赦). An indulgence, it was believed, reduced the time that one’s soul would have to spend in suffering or punishment before the soul reached heaven. By Luther’s time, indulgences could be obtained in return for a money contribution to the Church. Some clergy sold indulgences primarily as a way of raising funds for the Church or for the bishops.
The sale of indulgences was widely criticized, and on October 31, 1517, Luther challenged this practice publicly. On a church door in Wittenberg he nailed 95 theses, or arguments, attacking the sale of indulgences and inviting a debate. News of Luther’ many people agreed with his ideas, and he began to question other Church teachings. Like earlier reformers, Luther said that the Bible provided all the guidance a person needed to live a Christian life. Luther believed that people should read the Bible to find the path to faith. He did not think they had to rely on the interpretations given by the Pope or the clergy. He urged changes in church services and said that members of the clergy should be allowed to marry.
Three themes formed the basis for much of Luther’s doctrine. The first was a concept of Christian freedom that defined the Christian freedom that defined the Christian life as a free response to God’s self-giving love. The second theme concerned the nature of persons. Luther taught that the Christian individual is at the same time both justified and a sinner. The third theme was a concern for God as Creator and a subsequent link between creation and redemption. In short, one’s vocation is to follow Christ in this world. Luther saw the structures of the world and society—family, government, market—as ways through which Christians can serve their neighbors. Any legitimate calling in the world is therefore a proper means for expressing the Christian life.
Neither Church officials nor the Holy Roman Emperor could keep the reform movement from spreading among those who were dissatisfied with Church practices. Many Germans agreed with those reformers who called for a return to the piety of the early Christians. Many also were attracted by Luther’s belief that each person could communicate directly with God.
Luther’s teachings were not the only reason why many Germans became Lutherans, as his followers were called. Many townspeople resented the fact that their money flowed from Germany to Rome to pay Church taxes and buy Church offices. They thought the money should remain in Germany and be used to expand German trade and industry. Other Germans were annoyed that Italians controlled the most important offices in the Church. Some German princes backed Luther because they saw a chance to acquire property owned by the Church. The Princes’ support for Luther was a of demonstrating their independence from the Holy Roman Emperor.
The emperor tried to suppress the growing strength of the Lutheran movement. In 1529 several Lutheran princes met and issued a formal protest against these efforts. Because of this, they became known as Protestants. The support of the German Lutheran princes made possible the survival of the reform movement, which split the Western Church into Roman Catholics, who accepted the Pope’s authority, and Protestants, who did not. The movement itself came to be called the Reformation. In 1530 many of them signed the Augsburg Confession, a written statement of their beliefs.
The Reformation spread to other lands where opposition to the Church had been mounting for years. In 1536 a French scholar and theologian, John Calvin, joined the reformers in Geneva and developed the form of Protestant belief called Calvinism. Calvin, like Luther, regarded the Bible as the supreme authority in matters of faith, attacked abuses by the clergy, and emphasized the importance of faith in salvation. A central idea of Calvin’s philosophy, however, was predestination, the belief that certain people were chosen by God for salvation. According to Calvin, those who had not been chosen could never enter heaven, no matter how good a life they lived on earth. Calvinists considered it likely that strict obedience to God’s laws was a sign that a person had been predestined for salvation. Calvin explained his teachings in b book called Institutes of the Christian Religion. Calvinist teachings were carried to other countries by dedicated missionaries. Although the French rulers remained Catholic, Calvinism appealed to many French people and the French Calvinists became known as Huguenots. A Scottish Protestant, John Knox, carried many Calvinist ideas to Scotland in the 1550’s, laying the foundations for the Presbyterian Church.
The Church of England, as distinct from the Roman Catholic Church, dates to the 16th century. Between 1529 and 1536, Henry Ⅷ，in order to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, took steps to sever the Church of England from the Roman papal authority. The break with Rome was completed in 1534 when Parliament passed the Act of Supremacy establishing the Church of England and declaring the king of England to be its supreme head.
Two factors should be noted about the breach between London and Rome. First, Henry Ⅷ’s annulment was the occasion but not the cause of the move toward independence from the papacy. Prior to Henry’s particular dilemma, many protests and complaints had been registered against Rome by the English Church. Second, although separated from Rome, the Church of England retained the ancient Catholic sacraments, creeds and orders.
The Reformation had a profound influence on later history. The religious unity that had characterized Western and Central Europe in the Middle Ages vanished as Christians were divided into Catholics and Protestants. Protestants themselves were divided into a number of different groups.
Total Words: 1 221
Total Reading Time:
The text is based on A History of the World by Marvin Perry, Houghton Mifflin Company, 1985
◆Reading Comprehension
Circle the letter of the best answer.
1.Luther believed that Christians gained salvation .
A. by performing good works
B. by doing penance
C. through grace and faith
2.What was Luther’s attitude toward the Bible?
A. He thought the Bible did not provide all the guidance a person needed to live a Christian life.
B. He believed that people should read the Bible to find the path to faith.
C. He thought that people should rely on the interpretations given by the Pope or the clergy.
3.Some German princes supported Luther Mainly because .
A. he enabled them to communicate directly with God
B. his teachings appealed to them
C. They wanted to be independent from the Holy Roman Emperor and to acquire the property owned by the Church
4. John Calvin differed from Luther in that .
A. he regarded the Bible as the supreme authority in matters of faith
B. he emphasized the importance of faith in salvation
C. he believed that certain people were chosen by God for salvation
5. According to Calvin’s doctrine of predestination, .
A. God chooses some persons for salvation and some for damnation
B. some people do good deeds, so God chooses them for salvation
C. strict obedience to God’s laws was a way to salvation
6. It can be inferred that Presbyterian Church followed teachings.
A. Luther’s
B. Calvin’s
C. Catholic
7. When was the breach between London and Rome completed?
A. 1529
B. 1534
C. 1536
8. Which of the following was not the results of the Reformation?
A. The establishment of the Protestant Churches.
B. The disappearance of religious unity.
C. The loss of religious faith.
Key
◆Vocabulary Building
①Definition
Define the following terms in your own words.
redemption
salvation
resurrection
Catholic Church
Protestant Churches
②Idiom
Complete the following sentences with the appropriate idiomatic expressions which are related to the idea of CONTROL OF ANGER. Make sure it fits the blanks.
be hotheaded blow up
count to ten grit one’s teeth
reach the boiling point hold one’s temper
1. Stanley . He slammed the door in Paul’s face.
2. Cindy . She called Paul all sorts of names.
3. Carl . When he saw Paul, he tried to be friendly.
4. Becky . The others could not understand why she did not tell Paul what she thought of him.
5. Helen, who anyway, told Paul she never wanted to see him again.
6.When Margie saw Paul, she . Afterwards, she was not quite so angry.
③General Vocabulary Exercise
Use the appropriate form of the word given in the brackets to fill in the corresponding blank.
1. My mood is only ;it will go away soon.(transience)
2. I am to classical music.(partiality)
3. I felt apprehensive when I got the telegram.(vague)
4. Cape Cod has many little villages.(picture)
5. Don’t be deceived by his false .(humble)
6. His apology was small for our discomfort.(console )
7. The comedian was dressed in a very costume. (show)
8. He referred .to his great wealth. (casual)
9. Brittany is a of France.(provincial
10.He isn’t bad-tempered; he is as a lamb. (meekly)
④Analogies
Select the lettered pair that best expresses a relationship similar to that expressed in the original pair.
1.GLUE:SEAL:
A. letter: write B. water: dry
C. boat: row D. manure: injury
2.ARRHYTHMIC: REGULARITY:
A. atonal: sound B. aromatic: fragrance
C. apathetic: concern D. aggrieved: injury
3.BUILDING: TALL:
A. deer: swiftly B. cat: mouse
C. train：long D. small: thick
4. SPRING: SHOWER:
A. fall: LEAVES B. May: flower
C. winter: snow D. wet: inundated
5. CHURCH:PARISHIONERS:
A. school: teachers B. hospital: patients
C. jungle: animals D. nation: citizens
6. RELAPSE:ILLNESS:
A. demolish: building B. landslide: mountain
C. retrograde: bravery D. regress: behavior
7. YAWN: SLEEP:
A. anger: frown B. dream: nightmare
C. courage: bravery D. smile: mirth
8.DISQUIET:FEARS:
A. dampen: spirit B. imprison: criminal
C. agitate: mob D. mitigate: pain
Key
◆Cloze
Read through the following passage and then decide which of the choices given below would correctly complete the passage if inserted in the corresponding blanks.
The one person most 1 with the development of the Presbyterian Church is John Calvin(1509-1564). His major 2 Institutes of the Christian Religion, is a systematic treatise of 16th-century 3 thought, the cornerstone of Presbyterian doctrine, and one of the most influential books in Western thought.
Dutch, French, English, Scots, and Irish 4 the Presbyterian faith to America. One man, Francis Makemie, holds the 5 of being called the Father of American Presbyterianism. This Scottish minister came to America in 1683 6 a zeal for preaching and a genius for organization. He soon recruited other clergy in his tireless efforts to organize Presbyterians in the English 7 of America.
The Presbyterian Church took 8 and grew in American soil, but not without difficulties. Presbyterians, along with Baptists and Methodists, divided 9 the question of slavery prior to the Civil War. The northern group, 10 the United Presbyterian Church in the USA, became the largest Presbyterian body in this country and in the world. The southern group was called the Presbyterian Church in the United States. In 1983 these two groups 11 to form the Presbyterian Church(USA),the fourth largest Protestant 12 in the United States.
- A. associate B. associating C. association D. associated
- A. idea B. doctrine C. work D. belief
- A. Protestant B. Catholic C. philosophical D. radical
- A. gave B. received C. brought D. Welcomed
- A. distinct B. distinction C. distinctive D. distinctness
- A. for B. in C. with D. beside
- A. churches B. areas C. colonies D. regions
- A. roots B. root C. rooting D. rooted
- A. over B. at C. in D. to
- A. calling B. called C. call D. was called
- A. merged B. merging C. emerged D. emerging
- A. nomination B. denomination C. domination D. predomination
key
